A literature review of recent studies, papers, books, journals, and government data pertinent to violence and crime in urban schools was conducted by the Independent Projects Trust at the request of the national Secretariat for Safety and Security.

The purpose of the project was to review literature in order to determine what projects and programmes, or interventions, are currently being undertaken in urban schools in order to assess their impact on the problem and to analyse the key success factors, lessons and challenges.

This review was further required in order to determine measurement criteria on which to review future interventions, and to provide a framework for further social crime prevention initiatives.

The review addresses seven major themes and these were :

1. What is meant by a ‘culture of violence'? Owing to a number of historical factors, many South Africa children were born, reared, have matured, married and died in violent situations. Some have become so immune to violent actions that they see violence as both an acceptable way of expression, and as a way of channelling their emotions. Schools located in disadvantaged areas where the culture of violence reigns are plagued with violence, crimes, gangs, drugs, contraband, and other related problems.
2. What are the ‘risk factors' for youth who become violent? The key risk factors identified within the literature, and with no particular ranking, are being poor, race, age, location ie where you live, sex and gender, having been victimised, coming from a dysfunctional family, doing poorly at school and abusing a substance. These risk factors do not themselves cause criminality but rather, over time, influence the likelihood of criminal behaviour. The greater the number of risk factors, the greater the likelihood of turning to crime and violence.

3. What are the ‘resilience factors which underlie a child with the so called ‘risk factors' to NOT become violent or a perpetrator of crime? Characteristics of the resilient child such as high self esteem, trust, self-reliance, assertiveness, compassion, or the ability to conceptualise and problem-solve often come from very early childhood experiences. It is an uphill battle to try to gain these if the first five years of life inculcate the opposite.
4. Is there an alternative to the ‘risk ' / ‘resilience' factor approach? The alternative approach is to understand that violent school-age children are a product of a society that is economically, socially, politically, emotionally, and physically violent. Townships and informal settlements represent the spaces of the most traumatised, victimised and brutalised of South African people. The alternative is to recognise this and make every effort to upgrade these socially-devastating environments.
5. What is the impact of violence in schools? Gang turf wars spill onto school grounds because the school itself is a territorial prize for selling drugs, collecting revenue from theft, and recruiting gang members or intimidating children into becoming surrogate criminals. Based on school violence studies by the IPT since 1997, the situation is so destabilised in some areas that both children and staff members enter and leave campus as they wish and classes are not conducted according to any regular schedule.
6. Has research been undertaken to examine the ‘school system' as a producer of violence? The Government, The National Youth Commission, and the National Crime Prevention Strategy, have all recognised that there is the need to implement a curricula that is relevant to the life of South African youth. Thus, rather than look further into the failings of the school system, we need to implement the existing policies and strategies by identifying material which stimulates our youth and testing the kinds of techniques which work to effect democratic school management.
7. What are the windows of intervention for each important risk factor? Risk factors are so enmeshed with each other that it becomes almost impossible to have any marked impact by dealing with one in isolation from the others. The risk factor which does seem to underpin all others is the high level of poverty and the lack of opportunity to for escape from this dreadful cycle. This interdependence of all risk factors highlights the need to co ordinate intervention efforts in order to ameliorate the benefits. Nevertheless, this does not mean that individual efforts have no value or should not continue but, rather where interventions are occurring, that they should be supported by the State and that future interventions should build on existing efforts rather than replicate work already done.

Gaps in Research and Review-based Recommendations

While there are several areas in which additional research might be conducted, there is so much sound research and policy that has not been implemented that research and further workshopping of ideas can be counter-productive if we do not act on and test out the ideas and policies already in hand.

This means that:

the principle area for further research is to audit and then monitor all existing programmes to combat youth violence in urban schools for success factors and best practices rather than originate new avenues for research

schools must be encouraged to cooperate with existing government frameworks, policies and legislation for combatting crime

schools must also ally themselves with community-based efforts to combat crime including active participation in the Community Police Forum and forming partnerships with NGOs, local community organisations, and government agencies.

This line of reasoning can be established if we review, in short answers, what this literature review has established according to the initial questions posed in the terms of reference.

General Recommendations, Comments and Caveats

An audit and evaluation of crime interventions and current crime prevention programmes is needed if we are to:

determine, with any degree of certainty, which models are effective in reducing crime coordinate existing efforts within the schools

The literature is nearly unanimous in recommending the implementation of broad based interventions, involving schools, families, communities and other support agencies. The need for this approach becomes fairly obvious when one understands the complex and interrelated set of factors that produce juvenile offenders.

The most important recommendations are :

1. the principle area for further research is to audit and then monitor all existing programmes to combat youth violence in urban schools for ‘success factors and best practices' rather than originate new avenues for research
2. schools must establish security committees under the auspices of school governing bodies and be encouraged to cooperate with existing government frameworks, policies and legislation for combatting crime
3. schools must also ally themselves with community-based efforts to combat crime including active participation in the Community Police Forum and forming partnerships with NGOs, local community organisations, and government agencies.

For the complete literature review in Adobe Acrobate PDF format click here.

For further information regarding our work around youth violence please contact one of our staff click here.

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